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A solar cell refers to a type of device that transforms light into electrical energy by directly using the photovoltaic effect technology. Majority of the solar cells are made using silicon, which is the most common semiconductor material. Solar cells are usually made from n-type and p-type silicon semiconductors. The cells can be organized as arrays, which are made up of thousands of individual cells. These arrays can serve as an electric pow...

Wheat and barley both are important domesticated crops which belong to the grass family. Barley is a significant source of dietary fiber whereas wheat is a significant source of carbohydrates. Wheat is used to make biscuits, pasta, cookies, bread, noodles, crackers, bulgur and various other products. It is also used to manufacture animal feed and beverages. Barley is primarily utilized to make beer and other alcoholic beverages. It is also wid...

Water and wastewater treatment involves the use of one or more physical, chemical and biological processes or their combination for removing solids and organic matter from the wastewater. Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) are a set of chemical treatment procedures designed for effectively removing organic pollutants from water and wastewater by the process of oxidation. This emerging chemical technology is based on the in-situ generation of ...

Fertilizers are chemical substances that are applied to the soil for supplying essential nutrients required by plants. They are used as a part of nutrient management practice for enhancing the agricultural productivity or crop yield. Fertilizers can be classified into two categories, namely, organic fertilizers and inorganic fertilizers. Organic fertilizers are natural fertilizers derived from plants and animals. They have various benefits suc...

Remote sensing is the process of detecting and monitoring the physical characteristics of an area by measuring its reflected and emitted radiation at a distance from a satellite, drone or aircraft. It is used in several fields including photography, geology, and surveying. Remote sensing plays an instrumental role in the field of crop production and management. It is used extensively for forecasting crop production, assessing crop damage and c...

Plants are exposed to a number of biotic and abiotic stresses. Soil salinity is one of the major abiotic stresses, which negatively affects plant growth and crop production. Stress due to salinity leads to various changes in the physiological and metabolic processes based on the severity and duration of the stress. In the initial stages, soil salinity leads to osmotic stress, which causes physiological changes such as nutrient imbalance, inter...

Orchid is a large family of flowering plants, which belong to genus Orchidaceae. Orchid plants produce complex flowers having a large specialized lip (labellum). Most of the orchids are perennial. They are found in terrestrial and epiphytic habitats. Orchid phytochemistry refers to the study of phytochemicals or the chemicals derived from orchid plants. Some of the common phytochemicals detected in orchids are alkaloids, phenols, flavonoids, t...

Food technology refers to a subfield of food science that deals with the invention, production, preservation and quality control of food products. It uses modern technologies to create and enhance the food production and distribution systems. It is categorized into agricultural technology, food science and food delivery. Agricultural technology refers to the application of technology within the field of agriculture in order to improve efficien...

Sensors are small devices that are used to measure or detect natural Earth conditions such as motion, heat, or light, and represent this in analog or digital form. In the agricultural sector, sensors are used in drones, weather stations and robots. Data collected by these sensors is used for monitoring and optimizing crops and protecting the crops from adverse impacts of the environment. Optical sensors are agricultural sensors that involve th...

A cropping system refers to the order in which the crops are grown or cultivated on a piece of land over a fixed period of time. Modern agricultural practices are based on the concept of sustainability. Sustainable cropping systems are a group of agricultural practices that aim to fulfill the increasing demands of agricultural products for the growing population. At the same time, it also seeks to reduce the adverse effects of crop production ...

Animals use venoms primarily for killing or capturing the prey and for deterring the predator. Animal venoms are a rich source of complex biologically active molecules, which have various molecular functions and targets. There are two ways of classifying animal venoms, first by origin such as spider venoms, snake venoms, and scorpion venoms, and second by their effects on the body, such as hemotoxic and neurotoxic venoms. Animal venoms can lea...

One health (OH) is a concept which states that the health of human beings is intrinsically related to the health of animals and the environment. It involves developing and implementing policies, programs and laws in which various sectors collaborate and cooperate for improving public health outcomes. OH issues encompass environmental contamination, antimicrobial resistance, vector-borne diseases, zoonotic diseases, food security and safety, al...

Tsunami refers to a natural disaster that is characterized by a set of long waves brought on by an abrupt movement of the ocean, which is typically caused by an earthquake near or beneath the ocean's surface. This force generates waves that travel in all directions away from the source, occasionally spanning entire basins in the ocean. The devastation caused by tsunamis on both human and natural life is immense. The long-term effects of a tsun...

Plants produce hormones naturally, which affects various processes such as gene expression and transcription levels, cellular division, and growth. When these hormones are synthesized artificially, these are called as plant growth regulators (PGRs). They can be used to positively affect plant growth. There are different types of PGRs including auxins, cytokinins, and gibberellins. that regulate the growth of a plant. They function as chemical ...

Animal production refers to the process of raising animals for profit. This includes housing, feeding, marketing and breeding. Proper nutrition provides the animals with the necessary energy to develop and breed, as well as the immunity to combat infections. Animal nutrition is essential for livestock production, as feeding has a direct effect on the production capacity, growth rate and overall health of animals. The reproductive capability of...

A satellite altimeter calculates the time taken by a short electromagnetic pulse for completing a round trip. This electromagnetic pulse is emitted from an orbiting spacecraft towards the planetary body and is reflected-off its surface. This instrument also measures the height of the satellite from the surface of the planet. Satellite altimetry can be used to obtain useful data related to ocean science. It also provides novel insights into pla...

Earth sciences refers to the branch of science that deals with the physical, chemical and biological complex constitutions and synergistic linkages of Earth's four spheres, namely, biosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and geosphere. A geographic information system (GIS) is a type of computer system that captures, stores, verifies and presents information about different locations and conditions that exist on the surface of the Earth. It facilita...

Remote sensing is the science of obtaining information about objects or areas from a distance, usually from satellites and aircrafts. It has diverse applications in a number of fields including hazard assessment and natural resource management. Remote sensing data plays a crucial role in global environmental analysis and contributes towards economic development. However, there are some challenges in real life applications of remote sensing inc...

Ocean optics refers to the study of the interaction sunlight with water and the substances found in water. The research in this area includes the study of sea, lakes, coastal waters, rivers, large ocean basins, and inland waters. Knowledge of ocean optics is required in aquatic remote sensing research for comprehending the information which can be derived from the color of the water, as seen by satellite sensors in space. Ocean optics has been...

Marine engineering is a field of study that deals with the innovation, design, construction and maintenance of navigation equipment and seagoing vessels. It is mainly concerned with the development and manufacture of internal systems for submarines, boats and ships. Marine engineering is intrinsically related to other fields such as oceanographic engineering, naval architecture, nautical sciences, and automotive and mechanical engineering. Rec...