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Civil engineering refers to a professional engineering discipline that is primarily concerned with the design, construction and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment. The types of structures formed in civil engineering include canals, pipelines, roads, structural components of buildings, bridges, airports, railways, dams and sewage systems. There are a wide range of building materials utilized in construction such as wood...

Forest ecosystem is a self-sustaining functional unit of nature wherein living organisms interact among themselves and with the surrounding physical environment. It is a type of terrestrial ecosystem. Both biotic and abiotic elements such as soil, trees, insects, animals, birds and humans are a part of the forest ecosystem. There are four major components of a forest ecosystem, namely, productivity, decomposition, energy flow, and nutrient upt...

Indoor air quality (IAQ) refers to the quality of air inside a school, house, office, or any other building environment. Poor IAQ has been associated with decreased productivity, sick building syndrome, and poor learning in schools. Nausea, sinus congestion, shortness of breath, headache and other symptoms are associated with poor IAQ. Indoor air pollution can cause a variety of health problems, including heart diseases, cancer, respiratory di...

Water is needed for various bodily functions such as synthesis and structure of cell constituents and for transporting nutrients into the cells. Contaminants in water can potentially affect these functions, leading to short-term or long-term illnesses. Some contaminants can be readily identified by examining the odor, flavor, color and turbidity of water. However, majority of the contaminants are difficult to identify and require testing to de...

Wastewater treatment is a process used to remove contaminants from the wastewater in order to convert it into an effluent that can be returned to the water cycle. Some common wastewater treatment technologies include advanced oxidation processes (AOPs), nanotechnology, membrane filtration technology, and automatic variable filtration (AVF) technology. There are various researches being performed in the field of nanotechnology for developing ad...

Energy is the ability to perform any type of work. It can exist in several different forms such as kinetic, chemical, potential, electrical, nuclear and thermal. Constant and reliable supply of energy is the foundation for all production activities. Energy optimization refers to the management of energy in the built environment in order to optimize advantages for the environment and human beings. Energy optimization and system integration play...

Corporate social responsibility (CSR) refers to a business model that encourages businesses to make a concerted effort to work in ways that benefit the society and the environment instead of harming them. It is a commercial commitment that supports corporate social sustainability. It also involves businesses implementing moral and fair business practices. The four main categories of CSR are ethical responsibility, economic responsibility, envi...

Financial economics refers to a subfield of economics that studies the allocation and utilization of resources in markets. It typically entails the development of sophisticated models to test the variables influencing a specific decision. Financial economics is crucial in recognizing risks, making investment decisions, and determining the value of assets or securities. It has two basic aspects which include risk management and diversification,...

Plant breeding or plant genetics refers to the application of genetic principles for producing new breeds of plants that are more useful to humans. It deals with heredity in plants, mechanisms of hereditary transmission, and variation of inherited characteristics. Genomic selection is one the emerging methods of molecular breeding used for crop improvement. This method assists in the identification of superior genotypes with higher breeding va...

Agroforestry refers to a land-use management system wherein trees or shrubs are grown among crops or pastureland. Agroforestry-based ecosystem services refer to human benefits that are achieved beyond the farm scale as a result of farm trees' interaction with soil and water, carbon storage, and biodiversity. This intentional combination of agriculture and forestry has multiple benefits, such as enhanced yields from staple food crops, enhanced ...

Sustainable tourism is a type of tourism that has more positive effects than negative effects, particularly on the economy, environment and communities. It takes into account the effects that traditional tourism activities have on both the current and future generations in terms of environmental, economic and cultural factors. Sustainable tourism initiatives strive to uphold the local culture, preserve the environment and maintain harmony betw...

Heat transfer refers to the movement of heat across the border of a system caused due to difference between the temperature of the system and its surroundings. Mass transfer refers to the physical phenomenon that involves the observation of a net movement of generic particles from one place to another. These phenomena are the basis of various mechanisms and processes such as distillation of alcohol, the evaporation of water, and purification o...

Acoustics is a branch of physics that is related to the study of sound. Acoustic waves refer to a type of energy propagation through a medium using adiabatic process. The acoustic waves are characterized using different quantitative parameters such as particle velocity, acoustic intensity, acoustic pressure and particle displacement. A few examples of acoustic waves include seismic waves from an earthquake or volcanic eruption, audible sound f...

Rotating electric machines are electric machines that are used to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy. There are three basic types of rotating electric machines, namely, the DC machine, the polyphase synchronous machine, and the polyphase induction machine. Steel, copper and aluminum are the three materials commonly used in manufacturing these machines. Rotating electric machines consists of two parts, the rotor and the stator. Th...

Discrete mathematics refers to the study of mathematical structures that are countable or otherwise separable or unique. Logical statements, combinations and graphs are examples of discrete structures. Symmetry is a proportionate and balanced resemblance between two halves of an object. It implies that one half is the mirror image of the other. Discrete symmetry in mathematics is a symmetry that explains non-continuous changes in a system. Sym...

Machine learning (ML) refers to an artificial intelligence (AI) technique that teaches computers to learn from experiences. The algorithms of ML utilize computational techniques to learn information directly from data rather than using a preconceived equation as a model. ML is divided into two main categories, which include supervised learning and unsupervised learning. Each of them has diverse uses in geographic information system (GIS) and r...

A power converter refers to an electrical circuit that converts electric energy from one form to another that is optimized for a particular load. Power electronic converters have been utilized in hybrid electric systems to achieve conversions from AC to DC, DC to AC, DC to DC, and AC to AC, which enable bidirectional power flow. They are primarily composed of solid-state switches including IGBT, power MOSFET, thyristors, power BJT, and lossles...

An antenna is the interface between the radio waves propagating through space and the electric currents flowing in metal conductors. It is utilized in conjunction with a transmitter or receiver. It can be built to transmit and receive radio waves preferentially in one direction or equally in all horizontal directions. Antennas are necessary for wireless communication systems to function properly at both the transmitter and receiver ends. The r...

Biodiversity conservation refers to the protection, upliftment and management of biodiversity for ensuring sustainable benefits for the current and future generations. Biodiversity faces multiple threats at the global level such as pollution, urbanization, industrialization, depletion, erosion and increasing population. The loss of biodiversity severely affects the food chains of an ecosystem. There are three primary objectives of biodiversity...

Magnetosphere refers to that area of space around a planet that is controlled by that planet's magnetic field. It protects the Earth from certain types of radiation from the Sun. The inner magnetosphere is the region of magnetosphere that contains the plasmasphere, ring current, and the radiation belts all co-located within about 6.6 times of the Earth's radius. These belts are highly dynamic, increasing, and decreasing on time scales of minut...