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Biotechnology is a broad area of biology concerned with the development or manufacture of products using living organisms, biological systems and their derivatives. It integrates the principles of biological sciences such as biochemistry, cell biology, embryology, microbiology, etc. It overlaps with the fields of bio-engineering, molecular biology, biomanufacturing, biomedical engineering, etc. It has applications in the domains of food produc...

Physical education is related to the training and maintenance of the human body through calisthenics and sports. It involves psychomotor learning, engagement in conventional games like badminton, football, basketball, etc. as well as upcoming sports like skateboarding and fencing. The basic aim of physical education exercises, fitness regimes and sports is to incorporate cardiovascular exercises, strength training and cross lateral movements. ...

Hazardous wastes refer to substances that have a harmful or deteriorative effect on public health and the environment. This may be due to the toxicity, flammability, corrosivity, reactivity or radioactivity of the hazardous wastes. They can be recycled to produce new products, or destroyed by high temperature incineration or pyrolysis. Wastes can also be treated using cement based solidification and stabilization. Industrial wastes are any mat...

A gene is a sequence of DNA or RNA that codes for a molecule that has a unique function. During gene expression, the DNA is copied into RNA. The transmission of genes to the next generation is the basis of inheritance of phenotypic traits. The study of the structure and function of genes at the molecular level is approached from the discipline of molecular genetics, which is a branch of molecular biology. It explores the aspects of heredity, v...

Physical education is an educational discipline related to the maintenance of human health through physical exercises. Such education emphasizes on psychomotor learning and is imparted to children between primary and secondary education. Physical education is important for the overall health and well-being of students. It encompasses a wide variety of physical activities such as hiking, bowling, Frisbee, regular sports and yoga as well as self...

Soil is a composition of organic matter, liquids, gases and minerals that together is conducive to the subsistence of life. Some of the common minerals in soil are calcite, quartz, mica, feldspar, etc. The role of soil is significant as a medium that supports and promotes plant growth and development, stores water and also acts as a habitat for organisms. It also acts as a modifier of the Earth's atmosphere. The soil undergoes a constant proce...

Ecology is a branch of biology concerned with the study of interactions and interrelationships between organisms and their environment, as well as with other organisms. Ecosystems are vast systems of organisms, their communities, and the environmental factors that have an influence on these. Several processes control the flux of matter and energy through an environment, such as pedogenesis, nutrient cycling, primary production and niche constr...

Yoga is a set of spiritual, physical and mental practices. It originated in ancient India but is widely practiced throughout the world today. It is an orthodox school of philosophical tradition of Hindu society but has roots in Buddhism and Jainism as well, each of which differs from the other in its philosophical traditions, beliefs and practices. The most famous practices of yoga are Hatha yoga and Raja yoga. Regular practice of yoga is reco...

The scientific study of marine organisms and marine life in marine habitats is approached from the domain of marine biology. Marine habitats include the sea, coral reefs, seagrass meadows, kelp forests, thermal vents, etc. Marine organisms range in size from microscopic zooplankton and phytoplankton to massive cetaceans. In diversity, these organisms occupy all niches of organization, such as plants and algae, fungi, vertebrates and invertebra...

Aquaculture is the farming of molluscs, crustaceans, fish, algae and aquatic plants. It involves the cultivation of economically important species, creating interventions in the rearing process for enhanced production, besides regular feeding and stocking. Shrimp, oyster and fish farming, algaculture, mariculture and the cultivation of ornamental fish are some common forms of aquaculture. Aquaponics and integrated multi-trophic aquaculture are...

The extraction of valuable geological materials and minerals from the earth is referred to as mining. These are extracted as ores from an orebody, vein, lode, reef, etc. which are then processed with mechanical and chemical means to recover metals, gemstones, limestone, coal, etc. The extraction of petroleum and natural gas is also encompassed within this field. The techniques used in mining fall under the broad classification of surface minin...

Marine life comprises of the plants, animals and other organisms that inhabit the seas, oceans or estuaries around the world. The marine ecosystem is very diverse and includes over 230, 000 species and it is estimated that more than a million are yet to be discovered. The study of marine life is very important because marine organisms are the chief source of oxygen and also responsible for maintaining and shaping coastlines across the world. T...

An important requirement in agriculture is controlled and regulated irrigation. It refers to the application of water in requisite amounts to crops at regular intervals. This facilitates the growth of crops, maintenance of landscapes and revegetation in disturbed soils in dry climates or areas with low rainfall. It also plays a significant role in suppressing weed growth, frost protection, dust suppression and preventing soil consolidation. Th...

The field of marine biology and ecology includes the study of marine animals and plants in relation to their ecosystems. It also focuses on the influence of biotic and abiotic factors on marine life populations. The field also studies changes in topological, ecological and atmospheric factors that affect the survival and reproduction of marine life. Our oceans are changing due to a complex combination of ocean eddies and atmospheric winds as w...

Petroleum engineering is a field of engineering that is concerned with the production of crude oil or natural gas. The areas of formation evaluation, reservoir simulation, reservoir engineering, drilling, etc. are crucial to petroleum engineering. Reservoir engineering is a branch of petroleum engineering. It strives to solve the drainage problems that arise during the production of oil and gas reservoirs in order to achieve a high economic re...

Urban forestry is concerned with the growth, management and sustenance of varied species of trees in urban settings. Planning and management of individual trees and parks in cities and other urban spaces fall under this area of study. Such green spaces are crucial in metropolitan areas for a number of purposes including refining air quality, maintaining ecological balance, improvement of microclimate, etc. This book aims to present concepts an...

Evolutionary biology is a subfield of biology, concerned with the study of the evolutionary processes that cause diversity of life on Earth. The most significant evolutionary processes are natural selection, speciation and common descent. Some of the branches of this field are evolutionary ecology, evolutionary developmental biology, etc. Research in this field explores speciation and the evolution of ageing, evolvability, sexual reproduction ...

The study of the changes in an organism's genome expressed with time and the influence the organism's evolutionary past has on it, is studied under evolutionary genetics. Such changes occur within and between populations. This area of genetic study is under the domain of population genetics. It is vital to the development of modern evolutionary synthesis. Adaptation, population structure, speciation, dominance, epistasis, etc. are fundamental ...

Carbon dioxide undergoes exchange between the earth, biosphere, air and water. The processes of exchange between these reservoirs are mediated through the processes of transpiration, combustion, respiration and decomposition. The balance achieved between these is called the carbon balance. The widespread use of fossil fuels has led to the accumulation of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere resulting in adverse consequences, such as global warming...

Poultry refers to the domesticated birds, which are reared for their eggs, feathers and meat. These birds belong to the Galliformes order, which consists of quails, turkeys and chickens. Poultry is widely eaten all over the globe. These birds provide nutritionally beneficial food, which contains low fat and high quality protein. Poultry are kept in coops and hatcheries, but they are more often reared in battery cages and furnished cages. They ...