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Livestock refers to those domesticated animals which are used to produce commodities like meat, milk, leather, eggs, etc. They can also be used for the purpose of labor. Livestock animals are raised in an agricultural setting like a farm. Cows and goats are the most commonly reared livestock animals. In modern times, a number of technologically advanced techniques such as artificial insemination and selective breeding are being practiced to im...

The measure of the biological, radiological, chemical and physical characteristics of water with respect to human consumption is known as water quality. Mining, urban runoff, construction and discharge of sewage are some common activities which pollute the water and affect its quality. Treatment of water focuses on eliminating impurities like organic chemical contaminants produced by industrial processes and petroleum use, microorganisms, inor...

The process of waste management includes the techniques and methods used for the management of waste from its creation to disposal. Municipal solid waste contributes the maximum amount of waste produced due to industrial, commercial and household activities. Waste is incinerated or disposed in landfills. It can be recycled and reprocessed into new usable products. Waste management is based on waste hierarchy or the principles of the 3Rs namely...

This book attempts to provide information about the key concepts and theories related to the field of hydrology in comprehensive detail. It also discusses the modern principles and practices of this field. Hydrology refers to the study of all aspects related to water such as its movement, quality, distribution, type etc. Some of the prominent applications of hydrology are the estimation of rainfall, construction of dams, facilitation of potabl...

Global warming is the rise in the average temperature of Earth's climate system. Anthropogenic activities are the primary reason for this phenomenon, chief among which is the emission of harmful greenhouse gases like methane, carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide. Some of the other reasons of global warming include deforestation, aerosols and soot produced by human-made pollutants, etc. Climate change can cause many problems for Earth's inhabitants...

Geoscience refers to the study of the planet Earth. It encompasses all phenomena and physical characteristics of Earth. It uses other fields of science as research tools for developing scientific models related to the study of large scale geosystems. Geoscience delves into a detailed analysis of the lithosphere, atmosphere, biosphere and hydrosphere. This book traces the progress of this field and highlights some of its key concepts and applic...

Forests form a primary ecosystem of our planet. They are responsible for almost 75% of the gross primary productivity of the Earth's biosphere. Temperate, boreal, tropical forests are some of the most commonly known types of forests. Apart from being sources of minerals, herbs and other natural resources, forests also help in maintaining the ecological balance of our planet. They provide habitat to numerous species of plants and animals. This ...

The scientific study of diseases in plants falls under the domain of plant pathology. Diseases can be caused by pathogens and due to environmental conditions. Plant disease management is an important aspect of plant pathology. It involves the study of pathogen identification, disease cycles, pathosystem genetics, etc. Control of plant diseases is vital for the production of food and reduction in agricultural use of water, land and fuel. It is ...

Food processing and preservation is concerned with the transformation of raw or cooked food into products that can be stored, packaged and marketed. The emerging trends in food processing and preservation aim to maintain the nutritional quality of food and minimize food wastage. Some of the common practices of this field include pasteurization, mincing, canning, liquefaction among many others. This book is a comprehensive study of food process...

This book elucidates new techniques of climatology and their applications in a multidisciplinary manner. Climatology is the scientific study of climate over a long duration of time. Recent research in climate change and environmental science has contributed to the growth of climatology. This book traces the progress of this field and highlights some of its key concepts and applications of this area of study. Climatology plays a crucial role in...

The food industry includes the processes of agriculture, food manufacturing, processing, marketing, distribution, research and development. Food processing refers to the transformation of raw materials into finished products for consumption, using various methods such as mincing, liquefaction, cooking, pickling, pasteurization, preservation, etc. The process of conversion of carbohydrates into alcohol or organic acids with the help of microorg...

Climatology or climate science is the study of climate, especially weather conditions over a long period of time. The concepts of climatology are used to analyze accumulated data for pattern recognition. Such recognized patterns are used to forecast weather. Recent advances in this field of science have given rise to a number of modern approaches in related areas of research such as paleoclimatology, historical climatology, etc. This book is a...

Climate change is one of the most significant concerns facing the modern world. It refers to a long-lasting abrupt or abnormal change in weather patterns. Climate change is caused by both natural factors such as plate tectonics, volcanic eruptions and solar radiation, as well as human activities that cause environmental pollution. Research in this domain investigates geological evidences to create past climate records, make future projections ...

Meteorology is a branch of the atmospheric sciences that is concerned with weather forecasting. The different variables of the Earth's atmosphere such as temperature, air pressure, water vapor and mass flow are subject to change with time and their interactions with each other. These changes contribute to variations in the weather. The quantities of temperature, pressure, humidity and wind are measured by using the thermometer, barometer, hygr...

Natural disasters are adverse events that are caused by natural processes of the Earth. These include earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, floods, tsunamis, tornadoes and hurricanes. Natural disasters can be classified into geological disasters, hydrological disasters, meteorological disasters, space disasters and wildfires. Geological disasters include avalanches and landslides, earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. Some hydrological disasters are ...

Plants are multicellular photosynthetic eukaryotes. There are nearly 300, 000 species of green plants. Plants have evolved from algal mats, through bryophytes, lycopods and ferns to the highly complex angiosperms and gymnosperms. Some of the largest genomes among all organisms occur in plants. Besides the inheritance of traits, the genome of a plant is also responsible for its growth and development. Plants experience different biotic and abio...

Enzymes are biological catalysts, which help in accelerating chemical reactions in the cells and thereby helps in sustaining life. Microorganisms are a primary source for deriving enzymes. Bacteria, fungi and yeast are some of the commonly used microorganisms used to extract enzymes for diverse industries such as pharmaceuticals, food, textiles, animal feed, etc. Microbes can be genetically modified which makes them a better source of enzymes....

Applied geophysics is concerned with the implementation of geophysical theories and concepts to practical problems and tasks of civil engineering such as groundwater mapping, ore and mineral prospecting, etc. It studies physical phenomena like magnetism, electricity, radioactivity, etc. It also encompasses geological concepts to understand and analyze dynamics of plate tectonics, volcanism, rock formation, Earth's gravitational and magnetic fi...

The study of the interaction of humans with the pedosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, biosphere and the atmosphere falls under the domain of environmental soil science. The field also delves into diverse aspects of surface water quality, erosion control, septic drain field site assessment, vadose zone functions, land treatment of wastewater, storm water, etc. The restoration of wetlands, remediation of contaminated soils, soil degradation, bio...

Traditional waste disposal has tremendous negative impact on the environment. Recycling is a viable alternative because it helps to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and prevent wastage. It involves the conversion of waste materials into new materials and objects. The materials that can be recycled include paper, glass, metal, textiles, electronics and plastic. Biodegradable waste such as garden waste and food can also be recycled. Recyclable ma...