Now in paper, "Political Islam" examines the Islamic movements of six countries and traces both the intellectual sources and the socio-economic bases of political Islam. Nazih Ayubi argues that Islamic fundamentalism is a modern phenomenon dating back only to the inter-war period. He stresses the traditional concern in Islam for the collective enforcement of morals, but argues against the commonly held misconception that politics in the Arab world springs from theological principles. Ayubi suggests that radical Muslims have subjected politics to their specific religious views, and draws on the thinking of contemporary Muslim liberals in a discussion of possible intellectual responses to fundamentalism.